HEKASI

Republika ng Pilipinas

Dibisyon ng Siyudad ng Antipolo

Distrito II-A

Mababang paaralan ng Juan Sumulong

Lagumang Pagsusulit sa Hekasi sa Ikatlong Markahan

Pangalan: __________________________________ Baitang at Pangkat: _________

Guro: ______________________________________ Marka: __________________

1. Direksyon: Lagyan ng Tsek kung ang pahayag ay nagsasabi ng dahilan ng Espanya sa pagsakop sa Pilipinas.


__1. Upang humanap ng bagong ruta.

__2. Upang makapaglakbay ang mga Espanyol.

__3. Upang maging pinakamakapangyarihan sa buong mundo.

__4. Upang makipagkalakalan ang mga Europeo sa Silangan.

__5. Upang makatulong sa mahirap at wakasan ang kalakalang monopolyo sa Venice.

__6. Upang makatuklas ng kayamanan.

__7. Upang umangkat ng mga pampalasa ng pagkain.

__8. Upang manguna bilang isang bansa sa Europe.

__9. Upang gamutin ang may sakit.

__10. Upang maipalaganap ang Kristyanismo.

2. Direksyon: Lagyan ng bilang 1 – 5 ang bawat patlang ayon sa wastong pagkakasunod – sunod ng pangungusap.

__ Umalis ang mga Espanyol sa Espanya.

__ Nakalaban ng mga Espanyol si Lapulapu.

__ Narating nila ang Limasawa.

__ Nagpadala pa ng ibang ekspedisyon ang Espanya.

__ Nagdaos sila ng isang misa dito.

3. Direksyon: Bilugan ang titik ng wastong sagot.

1. Saan dumaong ang barko ng mananakop na Espanyol?

A. Cebu B. Leyte C. Davao D. Palawan

2. Kanino nakipagkaibigan si Magellan?

A. Haring Humabon B. Raha Sulayman C. Lakandula D. Lapulapu

3. Saan naganap ang laban nina Magellan at Lapulapu?

A. Mactan B. Maynila C. Limasawa D. Homonhon

4.Sino ang unang bayaning Pilipino na lumaban sa hukbo ng Mananakop?

A. Lakandula B. Raha Sulayman C. Lapulapu D. Raha Kulambo

5. Alin ang unang lungsod sa Pilipinas?

A. Cebu B. Maynila C. Bohol D. Leyte

4. Ipaliwanag ang sagot.

1. Alin sa programang pangkabuhayan ang nagustuhan ng mga Pilipino?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Ano ang Obras Pias?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Ano ang epekto ng sapilitang paggawa?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. Bilugan ang titik ng tamang sagot.

1. Aling bahagi n gating bansa ang hindi nasakop ng Espanyol?

A. Luzon B. Visayas C. Mindanao D. Palawan

2. Aling pangkat ng mga Pilipino ang napasailalim sa pananakop ng Espanyol noon?

A. Apayao B. Kalinga C. Tinggian D. Lahat sa mga ito

3. Aling pangkat ng mga Pilipino ang hindi nahimok bilang Katoliko Romano?

A. Muslim B. Bisaya C. Tagalog D. Ilocano

6. Ipaliwanag ang sagot.

1. Bakit nabago ang panahanan ng Pilipino?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Anong panahanan ang nais mong tirahan at bakit?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Bakit ayaw lumipat ng tirahan ng mga Pilipino?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. Isulat ang tamang sagot.

1. Sino ang nagtatag ng unang paaralan noon?

_____________________________________________________________________

2. Sino ang nagturo ng unang paaralan?

_____________________________________________________________________

8. Isulat ang tamang sagot.

1. Sino ang mga paring GOMBURZA? ____________________________________
2. Ibigay ang 2 nobelang nailimbag ni Jose Rizal ._________________________________________________________________
3. Ang La Liga Filipina ay may salawikain na: Unus instar omnium o Isa tulad ng lahat. Sino ang nagtatag ng La Liga Filipina? _____________________________
4. Ano ang naging papel ni Gat. Andres Bonifacio sa panahon ng himagsikang Pilipino? __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Sino ang kanang kamay ni Andres Bonifacio? ____________________________
6. Ano ang ibig sabihin ng KKK? __________________________________________________________________
7. Sino ang naging maybahay ni Bonifacio? ________________________________
8. Noong Agosto 23, 1986 naganap ang unang sigaw ng ____________________ .
9. Ano ang nagampanan ni Commodore George Dewey sa pag-papaalis sa Espanyol?

_____________________________________________________________________

10. Sino si Gregorio Del Pilar? ___________________________________________
11. Magbigay ng 5 pangyayari sa panahon ng Amerikano.

1.___________________________________________________________________

2.___________________________________________________________________

3.___________________________________________________________________

4.___________________________________________________________________

5.___________________________________________________________________

12. Ano ang pamahalaang Commonwealth? _________________________________

13. Sino ang naging Presidente ng Commonwealth? ___________________________

14.Sino ang pumirma ng Kautusan blg. 134 na ang tagalong ang pambansang wika ng Pilipinas? ________________________________

15. Ano ang Layunin ng Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere? _____________________________________________________________________

16. Bakit tumanggi ang Pilipinas sa paanyaya ng Hapon? _____________________________________________________________________

17. Bakit lubos na nanghina ang Estados Unidos sa pagbomba sa Pearl Harbor?

_____________________________________________________________________

18. Sino ang nagdeklara na ang Maynila ay Open City na? _____________________

19. Saan iniligtas ni Manuel Quezon ang Pamahalaang Commonwealth? __________

20. Kanino ipinaubaya ni Manuel Quezon ang Maynila? _______________________

21. Ano ang ibig sabihin ng USAFFE? _____________________________________

22. Ano ang kahulugan ng katagang “I Shall Return”? _________________________

23. Saan dinala ng mga Hapon ang mga sibilyang nakaligtas sa Martsa ng Kamatayan? __________________________________________________________

24. Kailan nasakop ng mga Hapon ang Maynila bago pa man tawagin itong Open City? ______________________

25. Ano ang ibig sabihin ng HUKBALAHAP? _______________________________

26. May kaugnayan ba ito sa mga Gerilya? __________________________________

27.Magbigay ng 2 layunin ng mga Gerilya.

1.___________________________________________________________________

2.___________________________________________________________________

30. Ano ang Kapisanan ng Paglilingkod sa Bagong Pilipinas? __________________

31. Tinawag na Panahon ng Kadiliman ang Pilipinas noong taong _______________.

32. Sino si Josefa Llanes Escoda? _________________________________________

33. Sino si Heneral Douglas MacArthur? ___________________________________

Pag-unawa sa Salitang Kasaysayan

9. Direksyon: Ibigay ang kahulagan ng mga salitang tinalakay noong ikaraang araw.

1. Miguel Lopez de Legazpi ____________________________________________
2. Karagatang Pasipiko _______________________________________________
3. Gwardya Sibil _____________________________________________________
4. KKK ____________________________________________________________
5. Heneral Emilio Aguinaldo ___________________________________________
6. Andres Bonifacio __________________________________________________
7. Marcella Agoncillio ________________________________________________
8. Calamba, Laguna __________________________________________________
9. Admiral George Dewey _____________________________________________
10. Demokrasya ______________________________________________________
11. Commonwealth ___________________________________________________
12. Tirad Pass _______________________________________________________
13. Gregorio Del Pilar _________________________________________________
14. Greater East – Asia Co - Prosperity Sphere ____________________________
15. World War II _____________________________________________________
16. KAMPEITAI _____________________________________________________
17. Heneral Douglas Macarthur _________________________________________
18. Corregidor _______________________________________________________
19. Treaty of Paris ____________________________________________________
20. HUKBALAHAP ___________________________________________________
21. Leyte ____________________________________________________________
22. KALIBAPI _______________________________________________________
23. Partido Federal ____________________________________________________
24. Manuel Quezon ___________________________________________________
25. Pearl Harbor ______________________________________________________

10. Ibigay ang mga kahulugan ng mga salitang nabanggit.

(Ika-unang Markahan)

1. Globo ________________________________________________________________

2. Longhitud ____________________________________________________________

3. Latitud _______________________________________________________________

4. Ekwador ______________________________________________________________

5. Prime Meridian ________________________________________________________

6. International Date Line __________________________________________________

7. Karagatang Pasipiko ____________________________________________________

8. Topograpiya __________________________________________________________

9. Hanging Amihan _______________________________________________________

10. Hanging Habagat ______________________________________________________

11. Nueva Ecija __________________________________________________________

12. Atas ng Pangulo 103 ___________________________________________________

13. Tabako ______________________________________________________________

14. San Juanico Bridge ____________________________________________________

15. Mayon Volcano _______________________________________________________

(Ikalawang Markahan)

1. Fernando Magallanes ___________________________________________________

2. Espanyol _____________________________________________________________

3. Marso 17, 1521 ________________________________________________________

4. Raha Humabon _________________________________________________________

5. Lapu-lapu _____________________________________________________________

6. Abril 18,1521 __________________________________________________________

7. Miguel Lopez de Legazpi ________________________________________________

8. Kalakalang Galleon _____________________________________________________

9.Banco Espanol Filipinas __________________________________________________

10. La Solidaridad ________________________________________________________

11. Jose Rizal ____________________________________________________________

12. Heneral Emillio Aguinaldo ______________________________________________

13. Manuel Quezon _______________________________________________________

14. Commonwealth _______________________________________________________

15. Tydings-McDuffie _____________________________________________________

(Ikatlong Markahan)

1. Ikalawang Digmaang Pandaigdig ______________________________________
2. Niponggo _________________________________________________________
3. Pearl Harbor ______________________________________________________
4. Jose P. Laurel ______________________________________________________
5. HUKBALAHAP ___________________________________________________
6. Heneral Douglas Macarthur ___________________________________________
7. Atas ng Pangulo blg.260 at 375 ________________________________________
8. Atas ng Pangulo blg.374 _____________________________________________
9. Proclamation 1050 __________________________________________________
10. Saligang batas 1987, Artikulo XIV, Seksyon XIV-XVIII ___________________
11. Batas Republika blg. 284 ____________________________________________
12. R.A. blg.7355 _____________________________________________________
13. Utos Pampanguluhan blg. 118 ________________________________________
14. Batas Republika blg. 7356 ___________________________________________
15. Kautusang tagapagpaganap blg. 39 ____________________________________

(Ika-apat na Markahan)

1. Ano ang kahulugan ng salitang digri?
2. Ano ang dahilan kung bakit pumunta ang Espanyol sa Silangan?
3. Ano ang Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere?

4.-5. Magbigay ng 2 batas sa pagpapanatili ng kultura.

L. Ano ang masasabi mo sa ginawang pananakop ng:

Espanya Amerika Hapon

Pumili ng isa at ilimbag ng pa-talata.

Republic of the Philippines
Province of Rizal
Division of Antipolo City, District II-A

Juan Sumulong Elementary School
Quiz Bee in Elementary Mathematics, Science and Hekasi

Name: __________________________ Section:____________ Date: _____________

Teacher:_________________________ Score _____________Rank: _____________

General Direction: Fill in the blanks with the specific answer.

1. An adult skeletal system has _________________ bones.
2. They hold the bones by fastening up the end. They are called _______________.
3. The group of bones which protect the vital organs is called _________________.
4. Red blood cells are made in _______________ marrow.
5. The ____________ and __________________ joints help you to move freely.
6. The ______________________ protects the lungs and the heart.
7. The _____________________ protects the brain.
8. This disease dries of the synnovial fluid. It is called ___________________.
The three kinds of muscles are:
9.
10.
11.
12. There are more than ______________________ muscles in your body.
13. The muscles work in _________________________.
14. ______________________ is the same in the skeletal muscles.
15. __________________________ invented phonograph.
16. Apolinario Mabini is called _______________________________.
The 3 kinds of food groups:
17.
18.
19.
The 2 types of digestions:
20.
21.
The 3 primary duct of saliva gland:
22.
23.
24.
25. ______________________________ the largest organ in the body which produces vile that helps in digesting food.

The 2 functions of the liver:
26.
27.
The 2 function of the intestines.
28.
29.
What are the 3 layers of the small intestine?
30.
31.
32.
The 3 layers of the large intestine:
33.
34.
35.
36. How long is the esophagus? _______________________________.
37. What does the bile do? _______________________________________
38. ______________________________ is the process of producing their own kind.
39. The _________________ is the process in which fertilization happens outside the mother’s body.
40. The whale is a ______________________________________.
41. It is born ______________________________________.
42. Is it a vertebrate? _________________________
43. Is a whale a mammal or a reptile? _______________________.
44. Penguins live in a sub-zero temperature. What do you mean by sub-zero temperature? ______________________________________________
45. Give an example of a useful pet. ____________________________.
46. Give an example of a harmful pet. ____________________________.
The 3 basic needs of an animal:
47.
48.
49. What is called the perfect flower? _________________________________.
Give the 3 parts of the pistil:
50.
51.
52.
The 2 kinds of variables:
53.
54.
Define:
55. Self pollination. ________________________________________________
56. Cross pollination. _______________________________________________
The 2 kinds of mixtures:
57.
58.
The 3 ways that the heat travels are:
59.
60.
61.
Define energy.
62.
63.
The 4 agents of soil erosion:
64.
65.
66.
67.
Define friction.
68.
69.
What are the causes of volcanic eruption:
70.
71.
Give the safety precaution before, during, and after volcanic eruption:
72.
73.
74.
75.
Give the 3 parts of the world.
76.
77.
78.
Give some examples of platforms of land:
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
Give some examples of platforms of water:
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
Define rotation:
91.
92.
Define revolution:
93.
94.

Define orbit.
95.
Give the periodic rise and fall of water due to the gravitational pull of the sun and moon to earth.
96.
97.
Give the 3 kinds of eclipse.
98.
99.
100.
Give some phases of the moon.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.

Division of Antipolo City
District ____________
__________________ ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

SECOND PERIODICAL TEST IN SCIENCE IV
S.Y. 2009-2010



Name: ____________________________________ Score:____________

Grade and Section: _________________________ Date: ____________

Directions: Read each question carefully and choose the letter of the correct answer. Write the letter of the correct answer on your answer sheet.

1. What is the female part of a flower?
A. pistil B. stamen C. corolla D. sepal

2. In what part of a flower do seeds develop?
A. anther B. stigma C. ovary D. style

3. Which part of a flower becomes the fruit?
A. petal B. sepal C. ovary D. stigma

4. It is the stalk where the pollen tube passes down to the ovary. What part of the flower is it?
A. stigma B. style C. ovary D. pistil

5. It is needed before fertilization takes place in a flower.
A. germination B. reproduction C. pollination D. evaporation

6. Why are insects important to plants?
A. They pollinate the flowers

B. They fertilize the flowers.


C. They make plants healthy.

D. They provide foods for plants.


7. A Sampaguita flower does not have an attractive color. How does it attract insects?
A. Through its size.

B. Through its sweet odor.

C. Through its leaves.

D. Through its stem.


8. What happens when the pollen tube reaches the ovary?
A. The ovary is wilted.

B. The sperm cell joins the egg cell inside the ovule.

C. The pollen tube will burst.

D. Insects will sip the nectar.


9. Which part of the flower becomes the seed?
A. ovary B. ovule C. stigma D. anther


10. What does a ripe fruit show?
A. The seeds inside are matured.

B. The seeds inside are dried.

C. The seeds inside are rotten.

D. The seeds inside are wilted.


11. Plants that complete their life cycle in a single planting season or one year are called_____________________________.
A. Annual plants C. Perennial plants

B. Biennial plants D. Aerial plants

12. A plant that completes its life cycle in two years is called ____________________.
A. Annual plant C. perennial plant

B. Biennial plant D. aerial plant


13. Brandon planted mongo seedlings in two cans containing the same kind of soil. He placed one can in the sunlight and the other inside a box with cover. He watered the seedlings everyday. What variable is being tested in the experiment?
A. Seedling. B. soil C. water D. sunlight

Study the set ups for an experiment. Then answer the questions that follow.












14. What are the controlled variables in the set up?_________________and___________________.

15. What is the manipulated variable in the setup?_______________________________.

16. In which of the following condition will a seed germinate the fastest?
A. Kept in a moist place. C. Kept in a covered box.

B. Kept in a dry place. D. kept away from the sunlight.

17. What are the characteristics of seeds dispersed by wind?
A. dry and light C. parachute-like parts

B. hairy parts D. all of these

18. What are the characteristics of ipil-ipil fruits that help them disperse seeds?
A. They have hooks. C. They are light.

B. They pop open. D. They are winged.

19. What makes Amorseco seed sticks to clothes of people and fur of animals?
A. It has husks. C. It has hooks.

B. It has fleshy part. D. It has feathery appendages.

20. What are the advantages of asexual propagation over sexual reproduction?
I. Plants mature faster.

II. Asexual propagation is easy.

III. Plant varieties are improved.
IV. Sexual reproduction is difficult.

A. I and II C. II and III

B. II and IV D. I and III
21. A girl wants to propagate San Francisco plants. Which part of the San Francisco plant will she use?
A. seed B. stem C. root D. flower

22. Which of these plants can be propagated through its leaves?
A. corn B. gumamela C. Katakataka. D. rose

23. How can plants harm people?
A. poisoning B. allergies C. wounding D. all of these

24. Which plant is harmful?
A. orchids B. euphorbia C. gumamela D. sampaguita

25. Why should you avoid smelling flowers?
A. Flowers are too sweet.

B. The flowers might be poisonous.

C. The pollen will cause blindness.

D. The pollen can cause allergy.


26. Your teacher told you to measure the blackboard inside your room. What measuring device can be used to get its volume?
A. meter stick C. graduated cylinder

B. beaker D. weighing scale

27. Ellaine is asked to give medicine to her infant baby brother who has fever. What is the appropriate measuring device should she use?
A. feeding bottle B. beaker C. medicine dropper D. erlenmyexers flask

28. The city engineer wants to check if the floor area of the building was made according to the plan. What measuring device is best in getting the measurement of the said floor area?
A. meter B. ruler C. weighing scale D. medicine dropper

29. Which of the following devices should be used in getting the accurate measurement of water?
A. meter B. graduated cylinder C. tape measure D. weighing scale
Instruction: Read and study this activity then answer the question that follows.
Activity:
1. Get a stone.
2. Place the stone in a glass jar.
3. Then, transfer the stone in the shallow pan. Did it change its shape?

30. What does this activity show?
A. Solid materials have mass.

B. Solid materials have definite shape.

C. Solid materials occupy space.

D. Solid materials have weight.

31. What is changed if you pour milk from a glass to a cup?
A. volume B. weight C. mass D. shape

32. Alyssa bought an inflated balloon. She blew air inside it. When the balloon became bigger she tied it with a rubber band. What did Alyssa observed?
A. Gas spread out and filled the balloon.

B. Liquid spread out inside the balloon.

C. Solid spread out and occupied the space.

D. All of these.

33. What is inside the balloon which gives its shape?
A. air B. nail polish C. water D. saliva

34. A piece of wood measures 50 inches long, 6 inches wide and 6 inches thick. Find the volume.












35. Two pieces of stones are placed in a graduated cylinder containing 15 ml. of water. When the two stones were placed, the water rises to 23 ml.. What is the volume of the two pieces of stones?










Direction: Match column A with column B. Write the letter of your answer in your answer sheet.

A. B.
36. It has definite shape. a) volume
37. It has no definite shape. b) water displacement method
It has the shape of its container. c) solid
38. It has no definite shape and volume. It can be squeezed.
39. The space occupied by matter. d) liquid
40. Determines the volume of an irregular solid. e) gas

Science

Republic of the Philippines
Division of Antipolo City
District II-A
Juan Sumulong Elementary School
First Grading Period in Science & Health For FL Section




1. What is the skeletal system made of? _____________________________
2. How many bones do you have since you were born? ________________
3. An average person has ___ bones.
4. The Axial Skeleton is a group of bone/s that _______ the delicate organs.
5. The ____ and the _____ is what the thoracic basket protects.
6. The Appendicular Skeleton is the group of bones that makes __________,
_________, _________ and _____________.
7.-10. Give some examples of bones that supports, make locomotions and framework.
1. ______________________ 2. ________________ 3. ________________
11. What is a joint? _____________________________________________
12.-14. give the 4 kinds of movable joints.
1. _______________________ 2. _______________________
3. _______________________ 4. _______________________
15. A ____________ or ________ is an example of immovable joints.
16.-17. ____________ is a smooth, elastic and fibrous tissue that has ______________ which acts as a lubricant.
18. ______________ are elastic bond that is found at the joints together with
Cartilage.
19. ____________ is caused by un sufficient supply of Vitamin D.
20. __________ is caused by gradual erosion of cartilage.
21.The break of bones is called _____________.
22. ___________ is characterized by abnormal curvature of the spine meaning to say side to side curve of the spine.







23.-26. the 4 kinds of fractures are ______________, ______________, _____________ and ________________.
27. _______________ occurs if the bone is forced out of its normal position.
28. ______ is an injury to the tissues covering a joint.
29. What is First Aid? ________________________________________
30. Give some ways of taking care of the Skeletal System. _______________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
31. What nutrients are needed to keep the bones healthy? Give three (3)
32. The human has more than ___ major muscles.
33.-36. Give the three kinds of muscles.
1. ____________________________ 2. ___________________________
3. ______________________________
37.-38. Name the 2 types of muscles.
1. ____________________________ 2. ___________________________
38. This muscles are found only in the Heart. _________________________
This is the type of muscle that you can control and stop at your will. _______________________
39. The main function of the muscles are___________.
40. A muscle is the tough, elastic tissue that makes the body ____.
41. What connects the muscle to the bone? _________________________
42. The muscles work in _____.
43. What is Biceps? _________________________________________
44. What is Triceps? __________________________________________
45. What are Voluntary Muscles? __________________________________
46. What makes the skeletal muscles? ______________________________
47.-50. Give 3 muscle disorders.
1. ___________________________ 2. ____________________________






3. _____________________________
51. What is Cramp? ____________________________________________
52. Too much work of a muscle may lead to ________________________.
53. Express Poliomyelitis in a short way. _____________
54.-57. Give some ways in caring for the Muscular System.
1. ___________________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________________________
58. What is the meaning of the word Handicapped? _____________________________________________________________
59. Draw the symbol for the disabled.



60. What is the problem with Thomas Edison? _______________________
61.-65. Give some ways to treat the Handicapped People.
1. ___________________________ 2. ____________________________
3. ___________________________ 4. ____________________________
66. What is the first organ in the Digestive Tract?______________________
67.71. The 3 glands that help in digestion in mouth are
1. ___________________________ 2. ____________________________
3. ___________________________________________________________
72. What is the function of the Teeth?______________________________
73. How long is the Esophagus?___________________________________
74. What is Peristalsis?___________________________________________
75.-76. The Esophagus is a long tube that connects the _____ to the ______.
78.-80. The stomach is a large ___ that uses an acid called____________ to turn the food to a thick liquid called ____.
81.-82. Compare Chemical Digestion to Mechanical Digestion. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________







________________________________________________________________________________________
83. It takes __ hours to digest food in the stomach.
84. How long is the Small Intestine? _____________
85. It has _____, a tiny finger-like protection that helps in digestion.
86. The __________ is smaller than Villi.
87. What is the Large Intestine? __________________________________ 88.The food that is not Digested comes to the ______________ and comes out as _____ or _____
89. How long is the Large Intestine? ___________________________
90. The Large Intestine is about __ larger than Small Intestine
91.-94. The Accesory Organs are composed of some organs in the Digestive Tract.Give 3 examples.
1. __________________________________ 2. _________________________________
3. __________________________________
95.What is Salivary Gland/s? ___________________________________________________________
96 What is a sticky substance that is secreted by the Salivary Glands? ___________________________
96.What is Pancreatic Juice? ___________________________________________________________
97. What is Diarrhea? ________________________________________________________________
98. What is Indigestion? _______________________________________________________________
99. What is Ulcer? ___________________________________________________________________
100. What is Constipation? _____________________________________________________________






101.What is Typhoid Fever? ___________________________________________________________
102.-106. Give some ways in caring for the Digestive System.
1. __________________________________ 2. ___________________________________
3. __________________________________ 4. ___________________________________
107. What is Reproduction? ___________________________________________________________
108. What is Fertilization? ____________________________________________________________
109. It is the fertilized egg called? ______________________________________________________
110. How are animals born? ___________________________________________________________
111. The process by which the animals warm up their eggs to hatch. ___________________________
112. What isMetamorphosis? __________________________________________________________
113. Why did their young look like their parents? __________________________________________
114. Give example of an animal that cannot take care of themselves. ___________________________
115.-119. Draw the Life cycle of a frog. __________________________________________________












120. Give the four stages in the ilfe cycle of a butterfly.
1. _________________________________________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________________________________________
3. _________________________________________________________________________________
4. _________________________________________________________________________________
121. How many eggs does the mosquito lay? _______________________________________________
122.-126. Give some examples of animals with their benefits derived.
Animals Benefits Derived
1. ____________________________ ________________________________________
2. ____________________________ ________________________________________
3. ____________________________ ________________________________________
4. ____________________________ ______________________________________-127. Give 4 examples of uses of animals.
1. __________________________________ 2. ________________________________________
3. __________________________________ 4. ________________________________________
128.-131. Give the 3 primary needs of animals.







1. _______________________________________________________________________________
2. _______________________________________________________________________________
3. _______________________________________________________________________________
4. _______________________________________________________________________________
132.-137. Give 5 useful animals.
1. ____________________________________ 4. ___________________________________
2. ____________________________________ 5. ___________________________________
3. ____________________________________
138.-140. Give 4. Harmful animals.
1. ____________________________________ 2. ___________________________________
3. ____________________________________ 4. ___________________________________
141.-146. Give 5 diseases caused by animals.
1. ______________________________________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________________________________






3. _______________________________________________________________________________
4. _______________________________________________________________________________
5. ______________________________________________________________________________
147.-150. Give 3 causes why animals attack their owner.
1. ____________________________________________________________________________
2. ____________________________________________________________________________
3. ____________________________________________________________________________



-God Bless!-

English

English Activities

Name:________________________ Grade and Section:_________________________

Teacher:________________________ Score:______________ Rating:______________

Directions: Underline the Following Verbs and encircle the Adjectives used.

Colorful tropical fish swim through warm water around a coral reef. The fish are part of the coral reef ecosystem. Beautiful orchids grow on trees that tower above the rain forest floor. The orchids and the trees are part of the rain forest ecosystem. A hawk swoops down on a rabbit hopping through the tall grass of a prairie. The hawk, rabbit, and grass are part of the prairie ecosystem.

WHAT IS AN ECOSYSTEM?

An ecosystem is all the living and nonliving things in a certain area. All the plants and animals, even the microorganisms that live in the soil, are living parts of an ecosystem. Air, water, and rocks are nonliving parts of an ecosystem.Ecosystems are smaller parts of all the living environments on Earth. Earth’s entire living environment is called the biosphere. The biosphere is made up of large areas called biomes. Land biomes include grasslands, deserts, coniferous forests (forests of cone-bearing trees), deciduous forests (forests of trees that shed their leaves), and tropical rain forests. There are also biomes in bodies of water, such as the ocean. The biomes, in turn, are made up of many ecosystems. The desert biome, for example, covers all the deserts of the world. Each individual desert is an ecosystem. The Mojave Desert in California is a desert ecosystem.

WHY DOES AN ECOSYSTEM NEED PARTS?

Every living thing in an ecosystem depends in some way upon other living and nonliving things in the ecosystem. All the parts of an ecosystem work together.The living things in an ecosystem are either producers or consumers. Producers do not eat other living things. Producers make food. Trees, grasses, and other green plants make food. Green plants are called primary producers. Plants use nonliving nutrients—nourishing substances, such as the chemicals in soil and water—to help them make food. They use energy in sunlight to make food. They also use carbon dioxide gas in air to make food.Consumers are animals that eat other living things. Animals that only eat plants are called herbivores. Herbivores are primary consumers. Rabbits, mice, and plant-eating insects are primary consumers.Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores. Carnivores are secondary consumers. Bears and hawks are secondary consumers.Ecosystems also have decomposers. Decomposers break down dead plants and animals. They break down animal wastes. Fungi, such as mushrooms and mold, and bacteria are decomposers. They turn dead material and waste into chemical nutrients. Plants take up the nutrients with their roots. They use the nutrients to make more food.

HOW BIG IS AN ECOSYSTEM?

Some ecosystems are huge, and some are small. A tropical rain forest ecosystem might cover hundreds of square miles. A mangrove swamp ecosystem might stretch only a few miles along the shore of an island.A place can have more than one ecosystem. A rain forest and a mangrove swamp could be on the same island. A coral reef ecosystem might be in the water around the island.

HOW DOES AN ECOSYSTEM WORK?

All things in an ecosystem are connected with one another. These connections come through food and energy. The energy comes from the Sun. Plants use the energy in sunlight to make food. Animals eat the plants. Other animals eat the plant-eating animals. The way energy flows in food from plants to animals is called a food chain. Food chains that overlap are called food webs.Let’s look at an ecosystem in a forest. Water flowing in a river makes the riverbanks wet. Plants that need lots of water grow along the riverbanks. Insects feed on plants in or along the river. A salmon swimming by eats the insects that fall in the water. A brown bear that lives in the forest wades into the river and swipes its paw in the water. The bear catches and eats the salmon.The bear tosses the salmon bones and some meat onto the riverbank. Bacteria and fungi now go to work. The tiny bacteria and fungi feed upon the remains of the salmon. They break down the salmon into chemical nutrients. Nutrients from the salmon go into the soil.The roots of plants along the riverbank take up the nutrients. They use the nutrients to make food. In this way, nutrients get recycled back through the ecosystem.

WHAT CAN HARM AN ECOSYSTEM?Any change in one living or nonliving part of an ecosystem can cause changes in other parts. Droughts, storms, and fires can change ecosystems. Some changes harm ecosystems. If there is too little rainfall, plants will not have enough water to live. If a kind of plant dies off, the animals that fed on it may also die or move away.Some changes are good for ecosystems. Some pine forests need fires for the pine trees to reproduce. The seeds are sealed inside pinecones. Heat from a forest fire melts the seal and lets the seeds out.Polluting the air, soil, and water can harm ecosystems. Building dams on rivers for electric power and irrigation can harm ecosystems around the rivers. Bulldozing wetlands and cutting down forests destroys ecosystems.Ecologists are working with companies and governments to find better ways of catching fish, cutting down trees, and building dams. They are looking for ways to get food, lumber, and other products for people without causing harm to animals.

Animal, multicellular organism that obtains energy by eating food. With over 2 million known species, and many more awaiting identification, animals are the most diverse forms of life on earth. They range in size from 30-m (100-ft) long whales to microscopic organisms only 0.05 mm (0.002 in) long. They live in a vast range of habitats, from deserts and Arctic tundra to the deep-sea floor. Animals are the only living things that have evolved nervous systems and sense organs that monitor their surroundings. They are also the only forms of life that show flexible patterns of behavior that can be shaped by past experience. The study of animals is known as zoology.Animals are multicellular organisms, a characteristic they share with plants and many fungi. But they differ from plants and fungi in several important ways. Foremost among these is the way they obtain energy. Plants obtain energy directly from sunlight through the process of photosynthesis, and they use this energy to build up organic matter from simple raw materials. Animals, on the other hand, eat other living things or their dead remains. They then digest this food to release the energy that it contains. Fungi also take in food, but instead of digesting it internally as animals do, they digest it before they absorb it.Most animals start life as a single fertilized cell, which divides many times to produce the thousands or millions of cells needed to form a functioning body. During this process, groups of cells develop different characteristics and arrange themselves in tissues that carry out specialized functions. Epithelial tissue covers the body’s inner and outer surfaces, while connective tissue binds it together and provides support. Nervous tissue conducts the signals that coordinate the body (see Nervous System), and muscle tissue–which makes up over two-thirds of the body mass of some animals–contracts to make the body move. This mobility, coupled with rapid responses to opportunities and hazards, is one feature that distinguishes animals from other forms of life.Some kinds of animal movement, such as the slow progress of a limpet as it creeps across rocks, are so slow that they are almost imperceptible. Others, such as the attacking dive of a peregrine falcon or the leap of a flea, are so fast that they are difficult or even impossible to follow. Many single-celled organisms can move, but in absolute terms, animals are by far the fastest-moving living things on earth.Animal life spans vary from less than 3 weeks in some insects to over a century in giant tortoises. Some animals, such as sponges, mollusks, fish, and snakes, show indeterminate growth, which means that they continue to grow throughout life. Most, however, reach a pre-defined size at maturity, at which point their physical growth stops.Like all living things, animals show similarities and differences that enable them to be classified into groups. Birds, for example, are the only animals that have feathers, while mammals are the only ones that have fur. The scientific classification of animals began in the late 18th century. At this time, animals were classified almost entirely by external features, mainly because these are easy to observe. But external features can sometimes be misleading. For example, in the past, comparison of physical features led to whales being classified as fish and some snakes being classified as worms.Presently, animals are classified according to a broader range of characteristics, including their internal anatomy, patterns of development, and genetic makeup. These features provide a much more reliable guide to an animal’s place in the living world. They also help to show how different species are linked through evolution. Scientists divide the animal kingdom into approximately 30 groups, each called a phylum (plural phyla).One phylum of animals, the chordates, has been more intensively studied than has any other, because it comprises nearly all the world’s largest and most familiar animals as well as humans. This phylum includes mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish together with a collection of lesser-known organisms, such as sea squirts and their relatives (see Tunicates). The feature uniting these animals is that at some stage in their lives, all have a flexible supporting rod, called a notochord, running the length of their bodies. In the great majority of chordates, the notochord is replaced by a series of interlocking bones called vertebrae during early development. These bones form the backbone, and they give these animals their name—the vertebrates.Vertebrates total about 40,000 species. Thanks to their highly developed nervous systems and internal skeletons, they have become very successful on land, sea, and air. Yet vertebrates account for only about 2 percent of animal species. The remaining 98 percent, collectively called invertebrates, are far more numerous and diverse and include an immense variety of animals from sponges, worms, and jellyfish to mollusks and insects. The only feature these diverse creatures share in common is the lack of a backbone.Some invertebrate phyla contain relatively few species. An extreme example is the phylum Placozoa, which contains just one species. Measuring less than 0.5 mm (0.02 in) across, this unique animal was first discovered in 1883 in a saltwater aquarium in Austria. Its flat body consists of just two layers of cells, making it the simplest known member of the animal kingdom, although not the smallest. Another minor phylum, the loriciferans, was classified in 1983 with the chance discovery of a tiny organism dredged up in marine gravel. Several other species of loriciferans have since been identified, but little is known about how they live.At the other end of the spectrum, some invertebrate phyla contain immense numbers of species. These major phyla include the annelids (segmented worms), with 12,000 known species; the nematodes (roundworms), also with 12,000 known species; and the mollusks, including bivalves, snails, and octopuses, with at least 100,000 species. The arthropods, with about 1 million known species, include the insects, spiders, and crustaceans. These figures include only species that have been described and named, which are only a portion of those that actually exist. Some biologists estimate that the total number of nematode species may be as high as a quarter of a million, while the total number of arthropods could exceed 10 million.Compared to vertebrates, most invertebrates are animals of modest dimensions. Giant squids, which are the largest invertebrates, can exceed 18 m (60 ft) in length, but the great majority of invertebrate animals are less than 2.5 cm (1 in) long. Their small size enables them to exploit food sources and infiltrate habitats that larger animals cannot use, but it also leaves them exposed to changing environmental conditions. This is not often a problem in the sea, but it can create difficulties on land. Land-dwelling invertebrates have to cope with the constant threat of drying out, and most of them quickly become inactive in low temperatures.On land, some invertebrates manage to overcome the problem of cold by using muscles to warm themselves. For example, many large moths and bumblebees use a special form of shivering to raise their body temperature to 35°C (95°F) before they take off, which allows them to fly in cool weather. Bees also maintain warm conditions in their nests, which speeds up the development of their young. But in invertebrates as a whole, temperature regulation is very unusual. In vertebrates, on the other hand, it has developed to a high degree.Vertebrates are customarily divided into cold-blooded and warm-blooded animals, but these labels are not very precise. Biologists normally use the terms ectoderm and endoderm to describe temperature regulation more accurately. An ectoderm is an animal whose temperature is dictated by its surroundings, while an endoderm is one that keeps its body at a constant warm temperature by generating internal heat.Reptiles, amphibians, and fish are ectoderms. Although they do not maintain a constant warm temperature, some of these animals do manage to raise their body temperature far above that of their surroundings. They do this by behavioral means, such as basking in direct sunshine when the surrounding air is cool. Mammals and birds are endoderms. These animals generate heat through their metabolic processes, and they retain it by having insulating layers of fat, fur, or feathers. Because their bodies are always warm, they can remain active in some of the coldest conditions on earth.Few parts of Earth’s surface are entirely devoid of animal life. Animals cannot survive in places where water is unavailable or permanently frozen, or where temperatures regularly exceed 55° C (130° F). However, in all habitats that lie between these extremes, animal life abounds.Animal life first arose in water. Millions of years later, marine and freshwater habitats continue to support a large proportion of the animal life on earth. Aquatic habitats—particularly in the seas and oceans–rarely experience abrupt changes in conditions, which is a major advantage for living things. In the seas and oceans, the greatest diversity of animal life is found in habitats close to shores. The richest of all these habitats are coral reefs, underwater ridges that form in clear water where the minimum temperature is 20° C (68° F) or above. Coral reefs are composed of an accumulation of the remains of coral—invertebrates with stony skeletons—calcareous red algae, and mollusks. One of the reasons for the great diversity of animal life in reefs is that living coral creates a complex three-dimensional landscape, with many different microhabitats. The smallest crevices provide hiding places for scavengers such as crabs and shrimps, while larger ones conceal predators such as octopuses and moray eels. Over half the world’s fish species live in coral reefs, many hiding away by day and emerging after dark to feed.On reefs and rocky shores, many animals are sessile, meaning that they spend their entire adult lives fixed in one place. These species, which include sponges, barnacles, and mollusks, as well as reef-building corals themselves, typically spend the early part of their lives as drifting larvae, before settling on a solid surface and changing shape. Sessile animals are common in aquatic habitats because it is relatively easy for them to collect food, which typically is pushed in the animal’s direction by water currents. By contrast, very few sessile animals have evolved on land.In open water, depth has a marked influence on animal lifestyles. The surface layers of the open sea teem with small and submicroscopic animals, which feed either on algae and other plantlike organisms or on each other. These animals form part of the plankton, a complex community of living things that drifts passively with the currents. Many planktonic animals can adjust the depth at which they float, but larger animals such as fish, squid, and marine mammals, are strong enough to commute between the surface and the depths far below.Even in the clearest water, light quickly fades with increasing depth. Deeper than about 150 m (500 ft), not enough light penetrates for photosynthesis to occur, so algae are unable to survive. With increasing depth, water pressure rises and temperature falls, ultimately coming close to the freezing point on the ocean floor. Despite these extreme conditions, animal life is found in the ocean’s greatest depths, fueled by the constant rain of organic debris that drifts down from far above. In a habitat where prey is widely scattered, many deep-sea fish can swallow animals larger than themselves, an adaptation that allows them to go weeks or months between meals.On land, animal habitats are strongly influenced by climate, the combination of precipitation and temperature conditions experienced in a region. At or near the equator, year-round moisture and warmth generates a constant supply of food. Further north or south, seasonal changes become much more pronounced, shaping the type of animals that live in different habitats and their strategies for survival (see Animal Distribution).Tropical and subtropical forests are home to by far the largest number of animal species on land. These animals include the majority of the world’s insects, most of its primates, and a large proportion of its birds. Tropical forests have existed longer than any other forests on earth and their plants and animals have evolved an elaborate web of interrelationships.Much of the animal life of tropical forests is still poorly known, and new species are constantly being discovered. The majority of these newly identified animals are invertebrates, but larger animals have also come to light during the 20th century. Major discoveries have included three large but secretive plant-eating mammals: the okapi, discovered in Central Africa in 1900; the kouprey, discovered in the forests of Cambodia in 1937; and the sao la, which was identified in forests bordering Laos and Vietnam in 1993.Unlike tropical forests, temperate forests provide animals with an abundance of food during spring and summer, but a dearth during the winter. In this habitat, animals have evolved several different strategies for avoiding starvation during the winter months. Food hoarders, such as squirrels and jay birds, bury surplus food during the fall, and dig it up again when other food supplies run out. Other forest animals, such as the common dormouse, avoid food shortages by hibernation, a period of inactivity when body temperature is lowered. A third group of animals—composed chiefly of birds, but also including some bats and insects–migrates to warmer regions before the winter begins and returns again in spring. In boreal forests, which are found in the far north, the seasonal swings are more extreme. Here only a few species stay and remain active during the winter months.For land animals, the most testing habitats are ones that experience intense drought or extreme cold. Desert animals cope with heat and water shortage by behavioral adaptations, such as remaining below ground by day, and also by physiological adaptations. North American kangaroo rats, for example, can live entirely on dry seeds without ever drinking liquid water. They do this by losing very little moisture from their bodies and using all the “metabolic water” that is formed when food is broken down to release energy.In tundra and on polar ice, winter air temperatures can fall to below -40° C (-40° F), which is far colder than the temperature of the surrounding seas. The smallest inhabitants of tundra, which include vast numbers of mosquitoes and other biting flies, spend winter in a state of suspended animation and are kept alive by chemical antifreeze within their tissues. The few animals that do remain active on land or ice during winter, such as seals and male emperor penguins, rely on a thick layer of insulating fat to prevent their body heat leaking away. Without this fat, they would die within a matter of minutes.Animals all feed on organic matter, but their diets and way of obtaining food vary enormously. Some animals are omnivores, meaning that they are capable of surviving on a very wide range of foods. Many other animals, from giant pandas to fleas, have extremely precise requirements and cannot deviate from their highly specialized diet.In general, animals eat plants, other animals, or the remains of living things. Plant-eaters, or herbivores, often do not have to search far to find things to eat, and in some cases—for example wood-boring insects—they are entirely surrounded by their food. The disadvantage of a plant-based diet is that it can be difficult to digest and is often low in nutrients.To overcome the first of these problems, most herbivores have tough mouthparts for chewing and grinding their food. Many plant-eating animals, from termites to cattle, have complex digestive systems containing microorganisms that break down cellulose and other indigestible plant substances, turning them into nutrients that the animals can absorb. The second problem—lack of nutrients–is harder to sidestep, particularly in a diet made up largely of leaves. As a result, leaf-eaters often have to feed for many hours each day to obtain the nutrients that they need.Carnivores live on flesh from other animals that is often nutrient-rich and easy to digest but difficult to obtain. Finding and capturing this kind of food calls for keen senses. But even though a hunter has acute vision or a highly developed sense of smell, a large proportion of a hunter’s victims manage to escape. If this happens too often, a predator quickly starves.Some mammalian predators, such as the lion and wolf, increase their chances of success by hunting in groups. While this strategy enables them to tackle larger prey, a successful kill has to be shared among members of the group. But in the animal world as a whole, many other predators adopt a less energy-intensive approach to catching their food. Instead of actively searching out their prey, they position themselves in a suitable location and wait for their prey to come within striking distance.In this method of hunting, camouflage and other forms of deception play a prominent role. Most animals that use a lie-and-wait strategy blend in with their surroundings, but a few use lures to entice their prey within range. A typical example is the alligator snapping turtle of North America, which waves a ribbon of pink flesh on its tongue that resembles a worm. Any fish venturing toward it is swallowed whole.In predatory animals, teeth or other mouthparts often play a part in catching and subduing food as well as in preparing it for digestion. These mouthparts include canine teeth in carnivorous mammals, venomous fangs in snakes, and poisonous “harpoons” in some marine mollusks. These harpoons can impale and kill small fish. Each harpoon is used just once, and afterwards it is expelled and another is formed in its place.Most predators hunt the largest animals that they can catch without putting themselves unduly at risk. However, some animals concentrate on food items that are much too small to be worth collecting one by On land, these animals include insect-eating mammals, such as anteaters and pangolins. Using their long and sticky tongues, they lick up ants and termites and can consume over 20,000 insects a day. In water, this kind of feeding strategy is mirrored by animals called filter feeders, which sieve small animals or food particles from their surroundings. Many of these filter feeders are sessile animals that sieve food from the water immediately around them. Others, such as some whales, scoop up their food while on the move and filter it out in their mouths, using specialized gills or plates of a fibrous material called baleen. This feeding technique is extremely efficient, allowing whales to grow to an immense size.In another feeding technique, predators seek out sources of food that are much larger than themselves but only eat part of their prey—usually its blood. This way of life is has been pursued with great success by several groups of flying insects, such as mosquitoes and horseflies. But in the animal world as a whole, fluid diets are much more common in animals that feed on plants. Aphids, cicadas, and other true bugs use piercing mouthparts to suck sap from plant stems. Many different animals, including moths, butterflies, hummingbirds, and bats, use probing beaks and tongues to reach nectar in flowers.To avoid the need to track down food, some animals use a highly specialized feeding strategy, called parasitism (see Parasite). A parasite lives on or inside other animals and simply siphons off some of its host’s food or, more commonly, feeds on the host itself. External parasites, such as fleas, have well-developed senses and adaptations that enable them to cling to their hosts. Internal parasites, such as tapeworms and liver flukes, are highly modified for a life inside their hosts. The sense organs of internal parasites are rudimentary or absent because they do not need to find food or avoid enemies. Instead, they devote their time entirely to the twin tasks of feeding and reproduction.Wherever they live, animals need oxygen in order to survive. By breathing, or respiring, they extract oxygen from their surroundings and dispose of carbon dioxide waste (see Respiration).Very small animals do not need any special adaptations for obtaining oxygen. Oxygen simply diffuses in through their body surface, with carbon dioxide traveling out the same way. Larger animals cannot rely on this system because they have a much bigger volume relative to their surface area. To obtain sufficient oxygen, large animals have to boost their oxygen intake by using special respiratory organs. In water,many animals breathe by using gills. A typical gill consists of a stack of thin flaps connected to the animal’s blood supply. Water moves past the flaps in a one-way flow, either when the animal moves, or when it pumps water through its body. The flaps extract oxygen from the water and pass it into the blood, which transfers it to needed tissues. The blood releases carbon dioxide in exchange.Gills do not work on land because their flaps collapse and stick together. Instead, land animals have evolved two different kinds of respiratory organs: tracheal systems and lungs. Tracheal systems are found in insects and many other arthropods. They consist of slender hollow tubes, called tracheae, that reach deep into the body, delivering oxygen from outside. Lungs are hollow cavities that have a large surface area. They are found in vertebrates and also in some invertebrates, such as terrestrial mollusks. In tracheae and most lungs, gases move in a two-way flow. Most vertebrates actively pump air in and out of their lungs to step up the rate of gas exchange. By stretching and squeezing their bodies, some arthropods behave in a similar way.All animals can move parts of their bodies. The majority are also capable of locomotion—movement of the whole body from place to place. Many simple animals, such as rotifers and flatworms, move with the help of microscopic hairlike structures called cilia. These beat in a coordinated way, propelling the animal through water or making it glide over solid surfaces at the rate of a few inches an hour. Another form of creeping movement, seen in earthworms, involves changes in body shape. The worm’s segments extend and contract in a set sequence, allowing it to force its way through the surrounding soil.Some of the earthworm’s relatives have flaps called parapodia that help them to move, but even with these, their speed is fairly modest. With a few notable exceptions—such as squid and octopuses, which can move by a form of jet propulsion—the fastest animals by far are ones that have skeletons and jointed limbs.Jointed limbs are found in only two groups of animals: the arthropods and vertebrates. An arthropod’s limbs are made of a number of hard tubular segments, which form part of its external skeleton, or exoskeleton. The muscles that operate them are hidden away inside this strong outer framework. In vertebrates, the plan is reversed. The bony skeleton forms an internal framework, with muscles attached around it.During the course of evolution, both these kinds of limbs have become modified in many different ways. Aquatic animals often have paddlelike limbs that push against the water, enabling them to speed away from predators or after food, or to maneuver their way around confined spaces. On land, the fastest animals, such as the horse and cheetah, have long legs and a flexible backbone, which helps to increase the length of their stride. Land animals that move by jumping often have highly developed hind legs, with extra-large muscles. In fleas, the muscles squeeze an elastic material called resilin, which flicks the legs back when released. This extremely rapid flick is faster than a jump triggered by muscles alone, and it throws a flea up to 30 cm (12 in) into the air.Many animals can glide, but only insects, birds, and bats are capable of powered flight. The fastest flying insects are dragonflies, which can reach speeds of about 29 km/h (about 18 mph) in short bursts. However, in terms of speed and endurance, birds are by far the most successful animal aviators. Swans and geese can cruise at 64 km/h (40 mph) for many hours at a time, while peregrine falcons can briefly reach 145 km/h (90 mph) when they swoop down on their prey.Being able to move gives animals many advantages, but it also generates its own demands. For any animal, random movement can be unhelpful or even dangerous. To be useful, movement has to be carefully guided.Animals are guided by their senses, which provide feedback about their changing surroundings. In animals that have radial symmetry (symmetry around a central point), such as jellyfishes, sensory nerves are arranged more or less evenly around the body. This arrangement makes the animal equally sensitive to stimuli from any direction. In bilaterally symmetrical animals (animals made of equal halves), sensory nerves are concentrated in the head. They convey signals to the brain from organs such as ears and eyes, telling an animal about the surroundings that it is about to encounter.These sensory systems help animals to move toward food and away from possible danger. On a longer time span, they also guide them through much more complex patterns of movement that are essential for their survival. These movements include special kinds of behavior needed to locate a partner, and also seasonal movements or migrations.Some of the shortest migrations are carried out by microscopic flatworms that live on sandy shores. These worms migrate up to the surface of the sand at low tide and back into it at high tide—a total distance of about 20 cm (about 8 in) roughly twice a day. In the open ocean, many planktonic animals carry out larger daily migrations, rising to the surface at dusk and then sinking at sunrise. By doing this, they reduce the chances of being eaten.The longest migrations are annual ones, undertaken by animals in response to the changing seasons. By carrying out these journeys, animals can breed in places where food is abundant for just a few months each year. Long-distance annual migration is seen in some plant-eating mammals, such as wildebeest and caribou, and also in whales, but it is most common in animals that fly. Some birds, such as terns and shearwaters, migrate over 32,000 km (20,000 mi) each year. Research has shown that during these epic journeys, they use a variety of cues to help them navigate. These include familiar landmarks, the position of the sun and stars, and the also the orientation of Earth’s magnetic field (see Animal Migration).Like all living things, animals have limited life spans. Although individual animals eventually die, reproduction ensures that they hand on their characteristics to future generations. Animals reproduce at markedly different rates, but all have the potential to increase their numbers if resources allow it. In practice, sharp increases are rare, kept in check by predators and food shortages. Animal reproduction takes two overall forms. In the first form, called asexual reproduction, animals produce offspring without needing a partner. Asexual reproduction is most common in simple animals such as flatworms and cnidarians. In flatworms, the parent often develops a constriction in its body, and the rear part eventually tears itself free. The rear part grows a new head, while the front part grows a new tail. Some cnidarians can also divide in two, but many reproduce by a different process, called budding. During budding, a small outgrowth of the body slowly develops into a complete new animal, which eventually takes up life on its own.Asexual reproduction also occurs in insects such as aphids and in a few unusual vertebrates, such as whiptail lizards. However, in general, it is rarely used as an animal’s sole method of reproduction. This is because asexual reproduction produces offspring that are genetically identical to their parent. They inherit all their parent’s weak points and are equally vulnerable if a disease or other changes in the environment threaten the group’s survival.A second and much more common form of reproduction, sexual reproduction, involves two parents. The parents produce sperm and egg cells (gametes), which are brought together to form a fertilized cell (zygote) with a new and unique combination of genes. In this genetic lottery, offspring inherit unique combinations of characteristics that increase the likelihood that at least some individuals in the population can survive changes in the environment.Sexual reproduction is used by the vast majority of the world’s animals. However, a significant number of species, particularly in the world of insects, use both forms of reproduction at different stages of their life cycles. They reproduce asexually when food is abundant, but turn to sexual reproduction when conditions become more severe.Asexual reproduction is relatively easy to achieve because it involves only a single animal. Sexual reproduction is much more complex because the partners often have to find each other and precisely coordinate their reproductive behavior. In most cases, each partner is either male or female, but in some animals—such as earthworms, slugs, and snails–each one is a hermaphrodite, an animal that has both male and female organs. Hermaphrodites usually fertilize each other, with both partners producing young (see Hermaphroditism).Most aquatic animals shed their eggs and sperm into the water, where external fertilization takes place. In corals and many other sessile species, the moment of spawning is often triggered by the tides, maximizing the chances that the egg and sperm will meet. In a minority of marine animals, fertilization is internal, meaning that the male mates with the female, inserting his sperm into her body. For this to work, the male needs special adaptations to make the transfer. Male sharks and rays use special claspers that are attached to their pelvic fins, while barnacles, which are often hermaphrodites, use a threadlike penis that can be almost as long as their bodies.On land, external fertilization is rare because egg and sperm cells cannot survive for long in the open. As a result, almost all land animals must mate to trigger internal fertilization in order to reproduce. Different groups of animals have evolved a wide variety of mechanisms to make sure that males and females manage to locate suitable partners. Some female insects emit chemicals called pheromones, which guide males towards them, while others use sound signals or biochemically produced light (see Bioluminescence). In birds, elaborate plumage and courtship displays help to attract females towards the males (see Animal Courtship and Mating).The males of many insects and virtually all mammals use a penis to transfer sperm to the female, who harbors the eggs, in a process known as copulation. The penis ensures that sperm is transferred successfully without being carried away by wind, water, or other environmental elements. Most birds and reptiles mate using a cloaca, a single opening located on the lower abdomen. During mating, these animals align their cloacas for transfer of sperm. Some birds, such as bald eagles, can perform this feat in mid-air. Once a female has mated, egg development can proceed in two different ways. In oviparous species, which include the majority of vertebrates except mammals, and also most insects, the fertilized eggs are laid and develop outside the mother’s body. In viviparous animals, which include nearly all mammals together with some reptiles and sharks, the young develop inside the mother and are born live.Most animals that are born live look similar to their parents, although they are not fully developed. By contrast, many egg-laying invertebrates look completely different from their parents when they hatch and often live in a completely different way. Known as larvae, these young change shapes as they grow up, during a process called metamorphosis. Larvae are also found in some fish and most amphibians.Animals that reproduce sexually have evolved a wide variety of different systems for maximizing the number of young that can be raised. In the simplest system, each female is partnered by a male, and the partnership lasts for life. In more complex systems, the fittest adults have many partners while others have none at all.In polygynous breeding systems, successful males mate with more than one female. Polygyny is common in birds, particularly in species where the males establish breeding territories that provide access to food. A male with a good territory may attract several mates, while one with an inferior territory may attract few or none. Polygyny can also be seen in some mammals and is taken to extremes in species such as elephant seals. The largest and most powerful male elephant seals, weighing up to four times as much as the females, clash viciously for dominance on a breeding beach. A successful male can assemble a harem of over twenty females, but weaker males are excluded from breeding altogether.In polyandrous breeding systems, one female mates with several males. This kind of breeding system is rare and usually occurs in species where the males take on the work of raising the young. An example of a polyandrous bird is the North American spotted sandpiper. In this species, females compete for males. A single female can lay up to five sets, or clutches, of eggs, and each clutch is incubated by a different partner.The most specialized mating systems of all occur in animals that form permanent family groups. In social insects, which include many bees and wasps and all ants and termites, each group or colony is founded by a single female or queen. The queen is the only individual in the colony to reproduce. Her offspring, which can number more than a million, forage for food, maintain the nest, and care for the young.With the exception of birds, the majority of egg-laying animals play no part in helping their young to survive. A large proportion of their young die, and to offset this, they often produce a huge number of eggs. A housefly, for example, can lay over a thousand eggs in the course of its life, while a female cod can lay 3 million.Most amphibians and reptiles lay smaller clutches of eggs, and some of them remain with their eggs and guard them until they hatch. Birds lay smaller clutches still, and the parents incubate the eggs, or keep them warm until they hatch, and continue to care for their young once they have hatched. Most ground-nesting species protect their young and lead them to food, but typical tree-nesting birds provide their young with both food and shelter until they are able to fend for themselves. Without this parental care, the young birds would have no hope of survival.Parental care is equally important in mammals, which provide food for their young in the form of milk. Raising a family in this way creates a close link between the mother and her young. This method also allows the young to learn important patterns of behavior by watching their mother at work. In small rodents, this learning period lasts for just a few days, but in larger mammals, it can last for more than a year.In the living world, resources such as food and space are limited. As a result, survival is a constant struggle. Through evolution, animals have developed a range of adaptations that give them the best chances of success.The most obvious of these adaptations are physical ones that affect the shape or structure of an animal’s body. Equally important, although often less conspicuous, are adaptations that affect behavior and body processes. Together, these different adaptations allow each species to pursue a distinctive way of life.The need to eat exposes animals to the danger of being attacked and eaten themselves. To avoid this fate, all animals have physical adaptations that enable them to escape being attacked or to survive an attack once it is underway.The simplest form of defense is a rapid escape, which calls for keen senses and well-developed systems for movement. Many plant-eating mammals depend on this strategy for survival and must maintain a constant lookout for danger. A less-demanding survival strategy, found in many small animals such as insects, involves deception. These animals use camouflage to blend in with their backgrounds, or they mimic inedible objects such as twigs or bird droppings. If a predator does come too close, they still have the option of making a dash for safety.A more sophisticated form of mimicry occurs in animals that resemble species that are poisonous. This is common in insects, and it also occurs in some snakes. Poisonous insects, such as bees and wasps, are often brightly colored to warn other animals that they are best left alone. By adopting these colors and developing similar body shapes, non-poisonous insects benefit from the same protection. The physical adaptations involved can be elaborate. The hornet clearwing moth, for example, is yellow and brown like a stinging hornet. On its first flight, it loses most of its wing scales, resulting in transparent wings that make the resemblance even more convincing.An alternative defense, seen in a wide range of animals, uses armor or spines to fend off an attack. Animal armor includes hard shells, overlapping scales, and in the case of armadillos, bands of hardened plates connected by areas of softer skin. If they are threatened, many of these animals can shut their bodies away inside their armor, making them difficult to attack. The disadvantage of this defense is that the animal cannot escape. If its armor is broken open, death is almost certain.In simple animals, behavior is governed almost entirely by instinct, meaning that it is pre-programmed by an animal’s genes. In more complex animals, instinctive behavior is often modified by learning, producing more-flexible responses to the outside world.Many forms of behavior help animals to survive severe environmental conditions. Two examples are hibernation, which enables animals to survive cold and food shortages in winter; and estivation, which allows animals to survive drought and heat in summer. True hibernators, such as bats and some rodents, become completely inactive during winter, and their body temperature falls close to freezing. While in this state, they survive entirely on food reserves stored in their bodies. Estivating animals, which include land snails and some amphibians, seal themselves up when conditions become dry and only become active again when it rains. Between these two extremes, many other animals show less drastic patterns of behavior that are triggered by cold or heat. Winter wrens, for example, often crowd together for sleep when temperatures fall below freezing. On warmer nights, they sleep on their own.Special forms of behavior also help animals to find food, to avoid being eaten, and to protect their young. One of the most advanced forms of this behavior is the use of tools. Several kinds of animals, particularly primates and birds, pick up implements such as twigs and stones and use them to get at food. More rarely, some tool-using animals seek out a particular object and then shape it so that it can be used. Woodpecker finches probe for insect grubs by making tools from cactus spines, and chimpanzees sometimes dig for termites using specially prepared twigs.Defensive behavior is exhibited by individual animals and also by animal groups. Group defense is common in herding mammals, particularly in species such as the musk-ox, which form a protective ring around their calves when threatened by wolves. It can also be seen in swallows, starlings, and other songbirds, which instinctively mob hawks and other birds of prey. By grouping together to harass their enemies, they reduce the chances that they or their young will be singled out and attacked.Individual defensive behavior is often based on threatening gestures that make an animal look larger or more dangerous than it actually is. Sometimes it involves some highly specialized forms of deception. One of the most remarkable is playing dead. Seen in animals such as the Virginia opossum and some snakes, this last-ditch defense is effective against predators that habitually hunt moving prey but leave dead animals alone. After the predator has inspected the “dead” animal and moved on, the prey comes back to life and makes its escape.Most biologists agree that animals evolved from simpler single-celled organisms. Exactly how this happened is unclear, because few fossils have been left to record the sequence of events. Faced with this lack of fossil evidence, researchers have attempted to piece together animal origins by examining the single-celled organisms alive today.Modern single-celled organisms are classified into two kingdoms: the prokaryotes and protists. Prokaryotes, which include bacteria, are very simple organisms, and lack many of the features seen in animal cells. Protists, on the other hand, are more complex, and their cells contain all the specialized structures, or organelles, found in the cells of animals. One protist group, the choanoflagellates or collar flagellates, contains organisms that bear a striking resemblance to cells that are found in sponges. Most choanoflagellates live on their own, but significantly, some form permanent groups or colonies.This tendency to form colonies is widely believed to have been an important stepping stone on the path to animal life. The next step in evolution would have involved a transition from colonies of independent cells to colonies containing specialized cells that were dependent on each other for survival. Once this development had occurred, such colonies would have effectively become single organisms. Increasing specialization among groups of cells could then have created tissues, triggering the long and complex evolution of animal bodies.This conjectural sequence of events probably occurred along several parallel paths. One path led to the sponges, which retain a collection of primitive features that sets them apart from all animals. Another path led to two major subdivisions of the animal kingdom: the protostomes, which include arthropods, annelid worms, mollusks, and cnidarians; and the deuterostomes, which include echinoderms and chordates. Protostomes and deuterostomes differ fundamentally in the way they develop as embryos, strongly suggesting that they split from each other a long time ago.Animal life first appeared perhaps a billion years ago, but for a long time after this, the fossil record remains almost blank. Fossils exist that seem to show burrows and other indirect evidence for animal life, but the first direct evidence of animals themselves appears about 650 million years ago, toward the end of the Precambrian period. At this time, the animal kingdom stood on the threshold of a great explosion in diversity (see Biodiversity). By the end of the Cambrian Period, 150 million years later, all of the main types of animal life existing today had become established.When the first animals evolved, dry land was probably devoid of any kind of life, except possibly bacteria. Without terrestrial plants, land-based animals would have had nothing to eat. But when plants took up life on land over 400 million years ago, that situation changed, and animals evolved that could make use of this new source of food. The first land animals included primitive wingless insects and probably a range of soft-bodied invertebrates that have not left fossil remains. The first vertebrates to move onto land were the amphibians, which appeared about 370 million years ago.For all animals, life on land involved meeting some major challenges. Foremost among these were the need to conserve water and the need to extract oxygen from the air. Another problem concerned the effects of gravity. Water buoys up living things, but air, which is 750 times less dense than water, generates almost no buoyancy at all. To function effectively on land, animals needed support.In soft-bodied land animals such as earthworms, this support is provided by a hydrostatic skeleton, which works by internal pressure. The animal’s body fluids press out against its skin, giving the animal its shape. In insects and other arthropods, support is provided by the exoskeleton (external skeleton), while in vertebrates it is provided by bones. Exoskeletons can play a double role by helping animals to conserve water, but they have one important disadvantage: unlike an internal bony skeleton, their weight increases very rapidly as they get bigger, eventually making them too heavy to move. This explains why insects have all remained relatively small, while some vertebrates have reached very large sizes.Like other living things, animals evolve by adapting to and exploiting their surroundings. In the billion-year history of animal life, this process has created vast numbers of new species, each capable of using resources in a slightly different way. Some of these species are alive today, but these are a minority; an even greater number are extinct, having lost the struggle for survival.Speciation, the birth of new species, usually occurs when a group of living things becomes isolated from others of their kind (see Species and Speciation). Once this has occurred, the members of the group follow their own evolutionary path and adapt in ways that make them increasingly distinct. After a long period—typically thousands of years—their unique features mean that they can no longer breed with their former relatives. At this point, a new species comes into being.In animals, this isolation can come about in several different ways. The simplest form, geographical isolation, occurs when members of an original species become separated by a physical barrier. One example of such a barrier is the open sea, which isolates animals that have been accidentally stranded on remote islands. As the new arrivals adapt to their adopted home, they become more and more distinct from their mainland relatives. Sometimes the result is a burst of adaptive radiation, which produces a number of different species. In the Hawaiian Islands, for example, 22 species of honeycreepers have evolved from a single pioneering species of finch-like bird.Another type of isolation is thought to occur where there is no physical separation. In this case, differences in behavior, such as mate selection, may sometimes help to split a single species into distinct groups. If the differences persist for a long enough time, new species are created.The fate of a new species depends very much on the environment in which it evolved. If the environment is stable and no new competitors appear on the scene, an animal species may change very little in hundreds of thousands of years. But if the environment changes rapidly and competitors arrive from outside, the struggle for survival is much more intense. In these conditions, either a species changes, or it eventually becomes extinct.During the history of animal life, on at least five occasions, sudden environmental change has triggered simultaneous extinction on a massive scale. One of these mass extinctions occurred at the end of the Cretaceous Period, about 65 million years ago, killing all dinosaurs and perhaps two-thirds of marine species. An even greater mass extinction took place at the end of the Permian Period, about 200 million years ago. Many biologists believe that we are at present living in a sixth period of mass extinction, this time triggered by human beings.Compared to plants, animals make up only a small part of the total mass of living matter on earth. Despite this, they play an important part in shaping and maintaining natural environments.Many habitats are directly influenced by the way animals live. Grasslands, for example, exist partly because grasses and grazing animals have evolved a close partnership, which prevents other plants from taking hold. Tropical forests also owe their existence to animals, because most of their trees rely on animals to distribute their pollen and seeds. Soil is partly the result of animal activity, because earthworms and other invertebrates help to break down dead remains and recycle the nutrients that they contain. Without its animal life, the soil would soon become compacted and infertile.By preying on each other, animals also help to keep their own numbers in check. This prevents abrupt population peaks and crashes and helps to give living systems a built-in stability. On a global scale,animals also influence some of the nutrient cycles on which almost all life depends. They distribute essential mineral elements in their waste, and they help to replenish the atmosphere’s carbon dioxide when they breathe. This carbon dioxide is then used by plants as they grow.Until relatively recently in human history, people existed as nomadic hunter-gatherers. They used animals primarily as a source of food and also for raw materials that could be used for making tools and clothes. By today’s standards, hunter-gatherers were equipped with rudimentary weapons, but they still had a major impact on the numbers of some species. Many scientists believe, for example, that humans were involved in a cluster of extinctions that occurred about 12,000 years ago in North America. In less than a millennium, two-thirds of the continent’s large mammal species disappeared.This simple relationship between people and animals changed with domestication, which also began about 12,000 years ago. Instead of being actively hunted, domesticated animals were slowly brought under human control. Some were kept for food or for clothing, others for muscle power, and some simply for companionship.The first animal to be domesticated was almost certainly the dog, which was bred from wolves. It was followed by species such as the cat, horse, camel, llama, and aurochs (a species of wild cattle), and also by the Asian jungle fowl, which is the ancestor of today’s chickens. Through selective breeding, each of these animals has been turned into forms that are particularly suitable for human use. Today, many domesticated animals, including chickens, vastly outnumber their wild counterparts. In some cases, such as the horse, the original wild species has died out altogether.Over the centuries, many domesticated animals have been introduced into different parts of the world only to escape and establish themselves in the wild. Together with stowaway pests such as rats, these feral animals have often had a highly damaging effect on native wildlife. Cats, for example, have inflicted great damage on Australia’s smaller marsupials, and feral pigs and goats continue to be serious problems for the native wildlife of the Galápagos Islands.Despite the growth of domestication, humans continue to hunt some wild animals. Some forms of hunting are carried out mainly for sport, but others provide food or animal products. Until recently, one of the most significant of these forms of hunting was whaling, which reduced many whale stocks to the brink of extinction. Today, highly efficient sea fishing threatens some species of fish with the same fate (see Fisheries).Since the beginning of agriculture, the human population has increased by more than two thousand times. To provide the land needed for growing food and housing people, large areas of Earth’s landscapes have been completely transformed. Forests have been cut down, wetlands drained, and deserts irrigated, reducing these natural habitats to a fraction of theirformerextent.Some species of animals have managed to adapt to these changes. A few, such as the brown rat, raccoon, and house sparrow, have benefited by exploiting the new opportunities that have opened up and have successfully taken up life on farms, or in towns and cities. But most animals have specialized ways of life that make them dependent on a particular kind of habitat. With the destruction of their habitats, their number inevitably declines.During the last century or so, animals have also had to face additional threats from human activities. Foremost among these are environmental pollution and the increasing demand for resources, such as timber and fresh water. For some animals, the combination of these changes has proved so damaging that their numbers are now below the level needed to guarantee survival.Across the world, efforts are currently under way to address this urgent problem (see Endangered Species). In the most extreme cases, gravely threatened animals can be helped by taking them into captivity and then releasing them once breeding programs have increased their number. One species that was restored in this way is the Hawaiian mountain goose or nēnē. In the 1950s, its population had been reduced to about 25 birds. Captive breeding has since helped the population increase, although the nēnē remains on the endangered list.While captive breeding is a useful emergency measure, it cannot assure the long-term survival of a species. Today animal protection focuses primarily on the preservation of entire habitats, an approach that maintains the necessary links between the different species the habitats support. With the continued growth in the world’s human population, habitat preservation will require a sustained reduction in our use of the world’s resources to minimize our impact on the natural world.